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War of 1812
spurs on the York Volunteers at the battle of Queenston Heights; [[USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere|USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere]]; The death of Tecumseh in 1813 ends the Native armed struggle in the American Midwest; defeats the British assault on New Orleans. |date=June 18, 1812 – February 18, 1815 ( ) |place= Eastern and Central North America, Atlantic and Pacific Oceans |casus= |territory= |result= Treaty of Ghent * Military stalemate; both side's invasion attempts repulsed * Status quo ante bellum * Defeat of Tecumseh's Confederacy |combatant1= *Choctaw *Cherokee *Creeks |combatant2= * * Tecumseh's ConfederacyBattle of the Thames, Encyclopædia Britannica, "Many British troops were captured and Tecumseh was killed, destroying his Indian alliance and breaking the Indian power in the Ohio and Indiana territories. After this battle, most of the tribes abandoned their association with the British." *Shawnee *Creek Red Sticks *Ojibwe *Fox *Iroquois *Miami *Mingo *Ottawa *Kickapoo *Delaware (Lenape) *Mascouten *Potawatomi *Sauk *Wyandot Bourbon Spain * Florida (1814) |commander1= James Madison * Henry Dearborn * Jacob Brown * Winfield Scott * Andrew Jackson * William Henry Harrison * William H. Winder }} * William Hull * Zebulon Pike * James Lawrence}} |commander2= George, Prince Regent}} * Lord Liverpool * Sir George Prévost * Sir Isaac Brock * Gordon Drummond * Charles de Salaberry * Roger Hale Sheaffe * Robert Ross * Edward Pakenham * James FitzGibbon * Alexander Cochrane * James Lucas Yeo *Tecumseh }} |strength1= }} |strength2= }} |casualties1=2,200 killed in action *4,505 wounded *15,000 (est.) died from all causesAll U.S. figures are from Donald Hickey |casualties2=1,160 killed in action *3,679 wounded *3,321 died from disease |notes= Killed in action * ‡ A locally raised coastal protection and seminaval force on the Great Lakes.}}}} During the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 175 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. While the Royal Navy could man its ships with volunteers in peacetime, it competed in wartime with merchant shipping and privateers for a small pool of experienced sailors and turned to impressment when it could not operate ships with volunteers alone. Britain did not recognize the right of a British subject to relinquish his status as a British subject, emigrate and transfer his national allegiance as a naturalized citizen to any other country. Thus while the United States recognized British-born sailors on American ships as Americans, Britain did not. It was estimated that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805. Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin stated that 9,000 were born in Britain. The Royal Navy went after them by intercepting and searching U.S. merchant ships for deserters. Impressment actions such as the Leander Affair and the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair outraged Americans, because they infringed on national sovereignty and denied America's ability to naturalize foreigners. Moreover, a great number of British sailors serving as naturalized Americans on U.S. ships were Irish. An investigation by Captain Isaac Chauncey in 1808 found that 58% of the sailors based in New York City were either naturalized citizens or recent immigrants, the majority of foreign sailors (134 of 150) being from Britain. Moreover, eighty of the 134 British sailors were Irish. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become United States citizens. Britain did not recognize naturalized United States citizenship, so in addition to recovering deserters, it considered United States citizens born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the widespread use of forged identity or protection papers by sailors. This made it difficult for the Royal Navy to distinguish Americans from non-Americans and led it to impress some Americans who had never been British. (Some gained freedom on appeal.) American anger at impressment grew when British frigates were stationed just outside U.S. harbours in view of U.S. shores and searched ships for contraband and impressed men while in U.S. territorial waters. "Free trade and sailors' rights" was a rallying cry for the United States throughout the conflict. A fact from this War the Star Spangled Banner was written in the Battle of New Orleans. References Category:American Revolutionary War